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/*

 * This file is available under and governed by the GNU General Public

 * License version 2 only, as published by the Free Software Foundation.

 * However, the following notice accompanied the original version of this

 * file:

 *

 * Written by Doug Lea with assistance from members of JCP JSR-166

 * Expert Group and released to the public domain, as explained at

 * http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/

 */

/**

 * A small toolkit of classes that support lock-free thread-safe

 * programming on single variables.  In essence, the classes in this

 * package extend the notion of {@code volatile} values, fields, and

 * array elements to those that also provide an atomic conditional update

 * operation of the form:

 *

 *  <pre> {@code boolean compareAndSet(expectedValue, updateValue);}</pre>

 *

 * <p>This method (which varies in argument types across different

 * classes) atomically sets a variable to the {@code updateValue} if it

 * currently holds the {@code expectedValue}, reporting {@code true} on

 * success.  The classes in this package also contain methods to get and

 * unconditionally set values, as well as a weaker conditional atomic

 * update operation {@code weakCompareAndSet} described below.

 *

 * <p>The specifications of these methods enable implementations to

 * employ efficient machine-level atomic instructions that are available

 * on contemporary processors.  However on some platforms, support may

 * entail some form of internal locking.  Thus the methods are not

 * strictly guaranteed to be non-blocking --

 * a thread may block transiently before performing the operation.

 *

 * <p>Instances of classes

 * {@link java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicBoolean},

 * {@link java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicInteger},

 * {@link java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicLong}, and

 * {@link java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicReference}

 * each provide access and updates to a single variable of the

 * corresponding type.  Each class also provides appropriate utility

 * methods for that type.  For example, classes {@code AtomicLong} and

 * {@code AtomicInteger} provide atomic increment methods.  One

 * application is to generate sequence numbers, as in:

 *

 *  <pre> {@code

 * class Sequencer {

 *   private final AtomicLong sequenceNumber

 *     = new AtomicLong(0);

 *   public long next() {

 *     return sequenceNumber.getAndIncrement();

 *   }

 * }}</pre>

 *

 * <p>It is straightforward to define new utility functions that, like

 * {@code getAndIncrement}, apply a function to a value atomically.

 * For example, given some transformation

 * <pre> {@code long transform(long input)}</pre>

 *

 * write your utility method as follows:

 *  <pre> {@code

 * long getAndTransform(AtomicLong var) {

 *   while (true) {

 *     long current = var.get();

 *     long next = transform(current);

 *     if (var.compareAndSet(current, next))

 *         return current;

 *         // return next; for transformAndGet

 *   }

 * }}</pre>

 *

 * <p>The memory effects for accesses and updates of atomics generally

 * follow the rules for volatiles, as stated in

 * <a href="http://docs.oracle.com/javase/specs/jls/se7/html/index.html">

 * The Java Language Specification, Third Edition (17.4 Memory Model)</a>:

 *

 * <ul>

 *

 *   <li> {@code get} has the memory effects of reading a

 * {@code volatile} variable.

 *

 *   <li> {@code set} has the memory effects of writing (assigning) a

 * {@code volatile} variable.

 *

 *   <li> {@code lazySet} has the memory effects of writing (assigning)

 *   a {@code volatile} variable except that it permits reorderings with

 *   subsequent (but not previous) memory actions that do not themselves

 *   impose reordering constraints with ordinary non-{@code volatile}

 *   writes.  Among other usage contexts, {@code lazySet} may apply when

 *   nulling out, for the sake of garbage collection, a reference that is

 *   never accessed again.

 *

 *   <li>{@code weakCompareAndSet} atomically reads and conditionally

 *   writes a variable but does <em>not</em>

 *   create any happens-before orderings, so provides no guarantees

 *   with respect to previous or subsequent reads and writes of any

 *   variables other than the target of the {@code weakCompareAndSet}.

 *

 *   <li> {@code compareAndSet}

 *   and all other read-and-update operations such as {@code getAndIncrement}

 *   have the memory effects of both reading and

 *   writing {@code volatile} variables.

 * </ul>

 *

 * <p>In addition to classes representing single values, this package

 * contains <em>Updater</em> classes that can be used to obtain

 * {@code compareAndSet} operations on any selected {@code volatile}

 * field of any selected class.

 *

 * {@link java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicReferenceFieldUpdater},

 * {@link java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicIntegerFieldUpdater}, and

 * {@link java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicLongFieldUpdater} are

 * reflection-based utilities that provide access to the associated

 * field types.  These are mainly of use in atomic data structures in

 * which several {@code volatile} fields of the same node (for

 * example, the links of a tree node) are independently subject to

 * atomic updates.  These classes enable greater flexibility in how

 * and when to use atomic updates, at the expense of more awkward

 * reflection-based setup, less convenient usage, and weaker

 * guarantees.

 *

 * <p>The

 * {@link java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicIntegerArray},

 * {@link java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicLongArray}, and

 * {@link java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicReferenceArray} classes

 * further extend atomic operation support to arrays of these types.

 * These classes are also notable in providing {@code volatile} access

 * semantics for their array elements, which is not supported for

 * ordinary arrays.

 *

 * <a name="Spurious">

 * <p>The atomic classes also support method {@code weakCompareAndSet},

 * which has limited applicability.  On some platforms, the weak version

 * may be more efficient than {@code compareAndSet} in the normal case,

 * but differs in that any given invocation of the

 * {@code weakCompareAndSet} method may return {@code false}

 * <em>spuriously</em> (that is, for no apparent reason)</a>.  A

 * {@code false} return means only that the operation may be retried if

 * desired, relying on the guarantee that repeated invocation when the

 * variable holds {@code expectedValue} and no other thread is also

 * attempting to set the variable will eventually succeed.  (Such

 * spurious failures may for example be due to memory contention effects

 * that are unrelated to whether the expected and current values are

 * equal.)  Additionally {@code weakCompareAndSet} does not provide

 * ordering guarantees that are usually needed for synchronization

 * control.  However, the method may be useful for updating counters and

 * statistics when such updates are unrelated to the other

 * happens-before orderings of a program.  When a thread sees an update

 * to an atomic variable caused by a {@code weakCompareAndSet}, it does

 * not necessarily see updates to any <em>other</em> variables that

 * occurred before the {@code weakCompareAndSet}.  This may be

 * acceptable when, for example, updating performance statistics, but

 * rarely otherwise.

 *

 * <p>The {@link java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicMarkableReference}

 * class associates a single boolean with a reference.  For example, this

 * bit might be used inside a data structure to mean that the object

 * being referenced has logically been deleted.

 *

 * The {@link java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicStampedReference}

 * class associates an integer value with a reference.  This may be

 * used for example, to represent version numbers corresponding to

 * series of updates.

 *

 * <p>Atomic classes are designed primarily as building blocks for

 * implementing non-blocking data structures and related infrastructure

 * classes.  The {@code compareAndSet} method is not a general

 * replacement for locking.  It applies only when critical updates for an

 * object are confined to a <em>single</em> variable.

 *

 * <p>Atomic classes are not general purpose replacements for

 * {@code java.lang.Integer} and related classes.  They do <em>not</em>

 * define methods such as {@code hashCode} and

 * {@code compareTo}.  (Because atomic variables are expected to be

 * mutated, they are poor choices for hash table keys.)  Additionally,

 * classes are provided only for those types that are commonly useful in

 * intended applications.  For example, there is no atomic class for

 * representing {@code byte}.  In those infrequent cases where you would

 * like to do so, you can use an {@code AtomicInteger} to hold

 * {@code byte} values, and cast appropriately.

 *

 * You can also hold floats using

 * {@link java.lang.Float#floatToRawIntBits} and

 * {@link java.lang.Float#intBitsToFloat} conversions, and doubles using

 * {@link java.lang.Double#doubleToRawLongBits} and

 * {@link java.lang.Double#longBitsToDouble} conversions.

 *

 * @since 1.5

 */

package java.util.concurrent.atomic;